Lesson 2: The Church Fathers: Establishing the Faith: A.D. 70-313

By the end of this lesson, the student should:

(1) Learn faithfulness from the example of the martyrs.

(2) Understand the testimony to the truth of the gospel that is provided by the early martyrs.

(3) Recognize the importance of the early apologists and theologians in defining orthodox Christian doctrine.

(4) Appreciate the spread of the gospel through the Roman Empire.

Many religious movements have flourished for a few years and then disappeared. A lasting movement must work through the challenges that arise in the second generation, after the initial excitement passes.

The church faced this challenge after the death of the apostles. By the end of the first century, the apostles and early converts were dead. A new generation of Christians faced new challenges.

The early church faced the challenge of persecution. The first generation of apostles who had seen Jesus in the flesh risked their life for the gospel. Would believers who had not seen Jesus remain faithful in the face of death?

The early church faced the challenge of evangelism. The first generation of believers left the Upper Room after Pentecost to spread the gospel to their world. Would believers who had not been in the Upper Room continue to fulfil Christ’s commission to take the gospel to the world?

These questions are still relevant today. Christians in many parts of the world face persecution. Will Christians today remain faithful in the face of persecution and even the threat of death?

Christians today are still responsible to take the gospel to the world. Will Christians today respond to Christ’s commission to his followers, “You will be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the earth.”[1]

In this lesson we will look at the history of the church from the fall of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 to the early fourth century. During this period of “catholic Christianity,” the church defined many tenets of orthodox theology.[2] During these centuries, the church fathers settled principles that would guide the faith and practice of all churches.

► What issues faced by the early church do Christians in your culture face today? As you study this lesson, look for principles that can guide the church today.

[1] Acts 1:8

[2] “Catholic” means “universal.” This term means the universal Christian church comprised of all believers. It is later that the term Catholic was used to refer specifically to the Roman Catholic Church.

One of the early testimonies to the truth of the gospel was the deaths of the first century martyrs. Ask yourself, “Who would die for a lie?” It is true that many people have died for lies – but they believed the lie was true. Islamic terrorists, members of suicide cults, martyrs for false religions have all died believing that their religion was true.

However, the apostles were witnesses to the Resurrection. If the tomb was not empty, they knew that the Resurrection was a lie. If the 500 witnesses of 1 Corinthians 15:6 did not see Jesus after the crucifixion, they knew that Paul’s testimony was a lie. Instead, the early believers faced death because they knew the truth of the gospel. The word “martyr” comes from a Greek word, martys, that refers to a legal witness. The early martyrs did not die for a lie; they died as witnesses to the truth of the gospel. They died because they had seen the resurrected Jesus and knew that He is Lord.

The gospel accounts of Matthew, Mark, and Luke circulated among the churches during the middle of the first century; John’s account was written late in the first century. By the late first century, the four gospels were authoritative witnesses to the truth of the resurrection. The next generation of martyrs based their faith on these gospels. The second generation of believers remained true to the faith in the face of persecution and death.

Following the death of Nero in A.D. 68 and the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70, Roman emperors ignored Christians for several years. However, in the early 80s, Domitian became emperor. In A.D. 89, he ordered Jews to send their religious tithe to Rome and to honor him as “lord and god.” When Jews and Christians refused to call him “lord and god,” Domitian banned all “Jewish practices” and Christian worship.

John was exiled to the Isle of Patmos during Domitian’s reign. While on Patmos, he wrote the book of Revelation showing that only Jesus is worthy to be called “Lord and God” and to encourage suffering Christians. Regardless of the opposition of Roman emperors, God will be victorious over the powers of this earth.

Persecution of Christians continued sporadically through the second and third centuries.[1] Emperor Trajan punished Christians who were reported to officials, but he did not seek out Christians. Septimius Severus (193-211) punished Christians and Jews because they worshiped only one God and refused to sacrifice to the Roman gods.

Decius and Valerian, two emperors from the third century, punished Christians who refused to sacrifice to the gods. Jews were exempt from the requirement to sacrifice to the gods, but by this time the Christian church was no longer considered a part of the Jewish faith.

Diocletian came to power in A.D. 284. Beginning in 303, he began persecuting Christians. Not only were individual Christians killed (as in earlier persecutions), but Diocletian ordered that churches be destroyed, Scriptures be burned, and believers be tortured before they were killed.

This intense persecution continued under Diocletian’s successor Galerius. The persecution ended only when Emperor Constantine issued his “Edict of Milan” in A.D. 313. Constantine’s edict granted Christians permission to worship freely. This ended the centuries of Roman persecution of believers.

…From Then to Now…

Persecution of the church continues today in places such as Sudan, northern Nigeria, and North Korea. It is estimated that forty-five million Christians were martyred in the twentieth century (one every five minutes). As you study this lesson, spend one day fasting and praying for the persecuted church. Pray that:

1. God will give Christians strength in the face of persecution.
2. God will use their testimony to reach their persecutors for Christ.

[1]"The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church."
- Tertullian (ca. 197)

"Eighty-six years I have been His servant, and He has done me no wrong. How can I blaspheme my King who saved me?” (Polycarp).

[3]

According to ancient tradition, Polycarp was a disciple of the apostle John. This makes him an important link between the apostles and the second generation of Christian believers. He was converted in childhood and spent his entire life serving as a leader in the church. Although he had little formal education, he was an effective leader, whose humility and courage impressed those who knew him.

Polycarp served as the bishop of Smyrna (modern Izmir in Turkey). He was a bold opponent of Marcion, the Gnostic heretic discussed earlier in this chapter. Even when he met Marcion on the streets of Rome, Polycarp refused to soften his opposition to Marcion’s heretical teaching. Rather than try to win favor with this popular teacher, Polycarp called Marcion a “child of Satan.” Polycarp’s teaching brought many Gnostics back to the true Christian faith.

In addition to doctrinal purity, Polycarp was concerned that Christians maintain a life of ethical integrity. He wrote a Letter to the Philippians which became an important guide for Christian belief in the second century. In this pastoral letter, Polycarp addressed practical issues of the Christian life. He warned against materialism and financial dishonesty. Then as now, money was a strong temptation to draw Christians into sin.

Smyrna was one of the two churches that did not receive condemnation in the Letters to the Seven Churches in Revelation. The message to Smyrna foretold persecution, but promised a crown of life to those who remained faithful. “Be faithful unto death, and I will give you the crown of life. …The one who conquers will not be hurt by the second death.”[1] Polycarp stands as a witness to that promise.

At the age of eighty-six, Polycarp was warned that he would be arrested. Officials in Smyrna had recently killed several Christians and were now demanding the bishop’s life. They believed that if they killed the bishop, the church in Smyrna would die.

Polycarp knew the seriousness of this threat. He had greeted Ignatius when Ignatius was transported through Smyrna on his way to martyrdom in Rome. Ignatius later addressed one of his seven letters to Polycarp. Polycarp knew the danger, but he refused to deny Christ.

When soldiers arrived to arrest Polycarp, he asked that they be served food and drink while he prayed. The soldiers listening to his prayers were so moved that they left him praying for two hours before taking Polycarp to the arena.

In the arena, the governor asked him to deny Christ and promised to spare his life. All that Polycarp must do is say the words, “Caesar is Lord.” By this point in Rome’s history, few educated people – even the Caesar – truly believed in the Roman gods. Because of this, many people encouraged Christians to say the words as a way of avoiding death. They insisted, “You do not have to believe these words. Simply say the empty words without giving up your faith in Christ.”

Polycarp responded with a testimony to Christ’s faithfulness. His words have echoed through history: “Eighty-six years I have been His servant, and He has done me no wrong. How can I blaspheme my King who saved me?”[2] He refused to compromise his faith in Christ in order to save his life. The governor then commanded that Polycarp be burned at the stake.

A witness to Polycarp’s martyrdom wrote that Polycarp's death affected everyone who watched: “He is even spoken of by the heathen in every place.” Even in death, Polycarp was a witness for God in the world. Polycarp was faithful to truth, even to the point of death.

The death of Polycarp and other second century Christians shows that the message of the gospel did not lose its power after the passing of the first generation of believers. The Holy Spirit gave courage to the apostles in the face of persecution; the Holy Spirit gave courage to Polycarp and his contemporaries in the face of death; the Holy Spirit will give courage today in the face of Satan’s opposition.

[1] Revelation 2:10-11

[2] The story of Polycarp’s martyrdom is found at http://www.ccel.org/ccel/richardson/fathers.vii.i.iii.html

[3]Image: "Saint Polycarp", retrieved from the Wellcome Collection, https://wellcomecollection.org/works/s5rsncq, public domain mark.

► What does the word “apology” mean to you?

Today, we use the word “apology” to refer to an expression of regret for an offense. To apologize to someone means to say, “I am sorry for what I did.”

However, the word apology originally came from a Latin word, apologia, which meant to “give a defense” of truth. In the second century, writers called “Apologists” defended the Christian faith against Roman persecutors. These writers explained the Christian faith to the educated people of their day. They wanted to show that Christians were not a political threat to the Roman Empire. As we saw in Lesson 1, some of the accusations against Christians were based on a misunderstanding of their worship practices. The apologists tried to explain these practices to unbelievers.

In addition, apologists presented the gospel to pagans. They often used the terms and ideas of Greek philosophy to explain the gospel. Apologists pointed to Paul’s sermon to the philosophers in Athens as an example of using pagan philosophy as a tool for the gospel.[1]

Justin Martyr (ca. 110-165) grew up in a Gentile family. He was trained in Greek philosophy instead of Jewish theology. Justin studied many Greek philosophers in his search for truth. Each of them brought disappointment. Eventually, he met an elderly Christian who introduced him to the gospel. Through this man, Justin found truth in Christ.

Justin found that the Christian faith answered the questions that no Greek philosophy had answered. Further, the courage of the martyrs convinced him that Christians knew the truth. He later wrote, “When I saw the Christians fearless of death, I knew that it was impossible that they could be living in wickedness and pleasure.” Eventually, Justin would die for his faith. He was beheaded for the faith in A.D. 165 after writing to the Emperor, “You can kill us, but you cannot hurt us.”

After his conversion, Justin studied the Old Testament and saw how the Hebrew prophets prepared the way for Jesus the Messiah. Justin became convinced that just as God used the Mosaic Law to show the Jews that they needed a Messiah, God used the teachings of the Greek philosophers to show their need for a Savior.

Justin saw that Greek philosophers asked questions that cannot be answered apart from Jesus. Because of this, Justin used ideas from pagan philosophers to teach the Christian faith.

Justin’s Dialogue with Trypho used the term logos from John 1 as the basis for his defense of the gospel.[2] He said that God gave the “seed of the word” to the Greek philosophers to prepare the way for the coming of Messiah. He quoted Socrates who rejected the Greek gods and goddesses. Justin said that by showing that these gods were false, Socrates freed the Gentiles “from the demons.”[3] This prepared Gentiles for the message of the true God and for the coming of Christ as the “Word made flesh.”[4]

Two North African apologists, Clement of Alexandria and Origen, used Greek philosophy to explain and defend the Christian faith. Alexandria, the second largest city of the Roman Empire, had a large Jewish population. In Alexandria, the Jewish philosopher Philo (a contemporary of Paul) had tried to explain Judaism using Greek philosophical terms. At the end of the second century, Clement of Alexandria followed Justin Martyr in attempting to find connections between the Christian faith and Greek philosophy.

Clement’s successor, Origen, went further in his philosophical speculation. He tried to explain the gospel to Greek culture using an allegorical approach to the Old Testament. For instance, Origen wrote a commentary on the Song of Songs in which he interpreted each phrase as a picture of Christ’s love for the church. Later commentators such as Augustine followed Origen’s allegorical interpretation. However, many of Origen’s philosophical ideas were later rejected by the church as contrary to Scripture.

…From Then to Now…

Some mission scholars today encourage evangelists to use Justin Martyr’s approach to evangelism. They suggest that we should study non-Christian beliefs in order to build bridges between false religions and the gospel. With this approach, a Christian raises questions for which an unbeliever has no answer. The goal is to create a hunger for answers that can be found in the gospel of Jesus Christ.

► What teachings in your society provide an opening for the message of the gospel? In what way may these teachings create a hunger for truth? What are the dangers in studying these false ideas?

[1] Paul quoted the inscription on a pagan altar in his sermon on the Areopagus (Acts 17:18-31).

[2] In John 1:1, the Greek word logos is translated Word and is used to refer to Jesus Christ.

[3] First Apology, 5

[4]In the early 17th century, Matteo Ricci, a missionary to China, followed Justin Martyr’s approach to evangelism. Ricci borrowed Confucian concepts (including a traditional Chinese name for God) to communicate the gospel. Through his influence, several government officials converted to Christianity. However, many believe that Ricci compromised Christian doctrine in his efforts to adapt to Chinese traditions. Today, Christians still face the challenge of communicating the gospel cross-culturally without compromising the message of the gospel.

After Pentecost, the center of Christianity gradually moved away from Jerusalem. As persecution increased, many Christians fled to Antioch of Syria. This church became the primary missionary-sending church of Acts. By the end of the fourth century, nearly half of Antioch’s population of 500,000 people were Christians.[1]

Paul took the gospel west through Asia Minor (modern Turkey). By A.D. 112, the gospel had spread throughout Asia Minor. The governor warned Emperor Trajan that the pagan temples soon would be deserted because so many people had converted to Christianity.

Paul and Peter preached in Rome. By A.D. 250, there were approximately 30,000 Christians in Rome itself. From Rome the gospel spread throughout the empire. Paul took the gospel to Spain after his release from prison. Churches were planted in present-day France by the middle of the second century. By A.D. 314, there were at least three bishops from Britain.

Another center of early Christianity was in North Africa. In contrast to Rome, where Christians were drawn largely from the lower classes, North African churches attracted many people from the upper class.

By the end of the third century, the gospel had reached throughout the entire Roman Empire. Beyond the Roman Empire, the gospel traveled east through Edessa and on to India. According to early church tradition, the apostle Thomas took the gospel to India where he was martyred by a group of high-caste Brahmins when he refused to sacrifice to the goddess Kali. This is the oldest account of the gospel moving beyond the Roman Empire. Some scholars believe that the gospel may have traveled from India to China along the Silk Road in the late first or early second century.

As Christians took the gospel to Jerusalem, Judea, Samaria, and to the end of the earth, they obeyed the Great Commission. The African theologian John Mbiti often reminds his audiences that the missionaries did not bring God to Africa; God brought the missionaries to Africa.[2] As we obey God’s call, He accomplishes His work in our world.

[1] Bruce L. Shelley, Church History in Plain Language, 3rd ed. (USA: Thomas Nelson, 2008), 29

[2] Cited in Timothy C. Tennent, Invitation to World Missions (Michigan: Kregel, 2010, 75)

Mahatma Gandhi once said, “I have never been interested in a historical Jesus. I should not care if it were proved by someone that the man Jesus never lived….For the Sermon on the Mount would still be true for me.” Sadly, many people who claim to be Christian believe like Gandhi. They say that the teachings of Jesus, but not the facts of his life, are important.

The early church fathers knew that the historical facts of Jesus’ life, death, and resurrection are important. Jesus’ ethical and spiritual teachings are grounded in who Jesus is. Paul put it bluntly, “If Christ has not been raised, your faith is futile and you are still in your sins.”[1]

In the second generation of the church, the church fathers were willing to face martyrdom because of their confidence in Jesus’ life, death, and resurrection. Like the church fathers, we must hold to the truths of Christianity. The church fathers faced martyrdom rather than deny the faith; Christians today are called to follow their example, remaining faithful even to death.

In the second generation of the church, the church fathers gave their lives for the proclamation of the gospel. They took the gospel to the corners of the Roman empire. Christians today are called to follow their example, committing ourselves to making disciples in all nations.

[1] 1 Corinthians 15:17

Clement of Rome (1st century). Bishop of Rome in the late first century. Wrote a letter to the church at Corinth that addressed problems of church order and authority.

Ignatius (ca.35-ca.117). Bishop of Antioch. Wrote seven letters to churches while traveling to Rome to face martyrdom. His letters show the theology of the first generation after the New Testament.

Irenaeus (ca. 130-202). One of the most influential early church leaders. His Against Heresies attacked Gnosticism. He contributed to the formation of the canon and to the doctrine of the incarnation.

Justin Martyr (100-165). The most important early Christian apologist. He used Greek philosophy to explain Christianity to unbelievers.

Origen (185-254). Bishop of Alexandria. Although he rejected Gnosticism, he accepted many Greek philosophical ideas that inspired the Gnostics. He used allegorical interpretation to explain difficult passages in the Bible.

Polycarp (ca.69-155). Bishop of Smyrna and respected Christian leader.  He was martyred at the age of 86.

(1) Take a test on this lesson. The test will include dates from the “Key Events in Church History” timeline (100-313).

(2) Prepare a biographical summary of one of the following Christian leaders: Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, or Irenaeus. Your summary should include four parts:

• Biography: When did he live? Where did he live? When and where did he die?
• Events: What are the most important events in his life?
• Influence: What was his lasting influence on the Christian church?
• Application: What is one lesson for today’s church from this leader?

You have two options for presenting this summary:

• Submit a 2 page written paper to your class leader.
• Give a 3-5 minute oral presentation to your class.

(1) Persecution of the church from A.D. 89-96 was led by the emperor _______________.

(2) In A.D. 303, the emperor ________________ ordered that churches be destroyed and Christian Scriptures burned.

(3) The apologist _________________ used Greek philosophy to explain Christianity to unbelievers from a pagan background.                                                                     

(4) The apologist _______________ used an allegorical approach to the Old Testament to explain the gospel to the Greek-speaking people of Alexandria.                

(5) The ______________________ canon was listed in A.D. 190. It includes most of our present New Testament.

(6) The Edict of Milan was proclaimed in A.D. ____________.