Lesson 1: The Magisterial Reformers: A.D. 1517-1618

By the end of this lesson, the student should:

(1) Recognize the primary leaders of the Magisterial Reformation.

(2) Understand the differing theological traditions that grew out of the Reformation.

(3) Know the meaning of the “Reformation Solas.”

(4) Distinguish between Arminian and Reformed theology.

Many historians date the beginning of the Middle Ages to the fall of Rome in 410 and the end of the Middle Ages to the fall of Constantinople in 1453. For more than 1,000 years, this city withstood repeated attacks by Muslims and even by fellow Christians during the Fourth Crusade of 1204. But in 1453, Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks.

As Greek monks fled to the west, they carried ancient Greek manuscripts of the New Testament. Desiderius Erasmus studied those manuscripts and published the first scholarly edition of the Greek New Testament in 1516. In the preface, Erasmus encouraged the translation of Scripture into the common tongues. This New Testament had a great impact on Martin Luther and other early Reformers. As the Bible was made available to the common man, the Roman Catholic Church could no longer prevent the spread of biblical truth. The Reformation was built on access to the Word of God.

Luther, Zwingli, and Calvin are called the “Magisterial Reformers” because they emphasized organizational structures and the power of the Christian governments to enforce Christian principles in society by law. In the next lesson, we will study other reform movements of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries.

Although the roots of the Reformation extend back to the twelfth century, Martin Luther (1483-1546) was the spark that fanned these embers into a flame. As Luther studied the Greek New Testament, he discovered the true message of the gospel. Within a few years, the Reformation would sweep across Europe.

Four questions were central to the Reformation.[1] Luther’s answers to these questions show the primary emphases of the Reformation.

1. How is a person saved?
2. Where is spiritual authority based?
3. What is the church?
4. What is the essence of Christian living?

How is a Person Saved?

The Roman Catholic Church answered, “A person is saved by faith and good works.” These works include faithfulness to church teachings and rituals.

After nearly dying from a lightning strike, Luther joined an Augustinian monastery at the age of twenty-two. He was faithful to every requirement of the monastery. He nearly destroyed his health with long fasts and ascetic practices. He later testified, “If anyone could have earned heaven by the life of a monk, it was I.” Like Paul in Philippians 3:4-6, Luther knew that if there was any reason to have confidence in the flesh, he was secure.

However, while performing his first Mass Luther was struck by the conviction that he was “full of sin.” In 1510, he made a pilgrimage to Rome hoping to find peace of soul. Instead, as he saw the hypocrisy of the church hierarchy, he wrote, “Rome, once the holiest city was now the worst.”

Disillusioned, Luther began to seek an answer to the question, “How can a sinner be made right before a holy God?” He read in Romans, “For therein is the righteousness of God revealed from faith to faith: as it is written, ‘The just shall live by faith.’”[2] Here he found the astounding truth that “through grace and sheer mercy God justifies us through faith.” From this, Luther understood that the “righteousness of God” is not only the requirement of God; it is the provision of God.

The Reformers answered the question, “How is a person saved?” with, “We are justified by grace through faith alone.”  The Reformers were known for the principles of sola gratia (grace alone) and sola fide (faith alone).[6]

The doctrine of justification by grace through faith involves three terms:

Justification is the act of declaring a sinner who repents righteous before God. Through justification, we are pardoned for our sins.

By grace alone means that nothing we do merits salvation. Salvation is not by grace plus works, the teaching of the Judaizers of the first century. Salvation is not by grace plus the church, the teaching of the Roman Catholic Church. Salvation comes through God’s grace alone because Jesus took our place.

By faith alone means that we receive this gracious gift by believing God’s promises. Nothing that we do earns salvation; it is the free gift of God. We accept it by faith in God’s promises.[3]

The doctrine of justification by faith alone was the foundation of the Protestant Reformation. The Reformers insisted that nothing can be added to faith as a prerequisite to justification. Luther’s last written essay ended with these words, “We are beggars. That’s the truth.” This was not a statement of despair; it was a joyful declaration that in grace, God hears and answers the beggar’s cry.

► How would you explain justification by grace through faith to three types of people?

• A Roman Catholic who believes that she is justified through the Catholic church
• An unbeliever who believes that he will be justified by “living a good life and doing my best”
• A hungry seeker who believes that she is “not good enough” to deserve justification

Where Is Spiritual Authority Based?

The Roman Catholic Church answered, “All spiritual authority lies with the Church of Rome, headed by the pope.”

In 1513, Pope Leo X approved the sale of indulgences to raise money to complete St. Peter’s Basilica. A German monk, Johann Tetzel, promised that a person who bought an indulgence was made “cleaner than Adam before the Fall.” In response, Luther wrote his Ninety-Five Theses (propositions) to condemn this practice. Following the custom of the day, Luther nailed his proposal for public debate to the door of the Wittenberg church. Johann Eck, a Roman Catholic theologian, responded by accusing Luther of heresy.

Luther did not intend to leave the Roman Church; he sought to reform errors within the church. However, his study of Scripture gradually led Luther to reject Catholic dogma. Reading the Greek New Testament, Luther saw that Jesus’ call to “repentance” did not mean “do penance,” as it was translated in the Latin Vulgate. Instead, it meant a change of heart and mind. Luther objected to a teaching that lowered the demands of God’s holiness to nothing more than ritual. He insisted that grace transforms our entire being.

Eventually, Luther realized that Scripture must hold authority above the church. In a debate with Eck, Luther stated the Reformation principle, “Neither the church nor the pope can establish articles of faith. These must come from Scripture.” This principle, called sola Scriptura, means “Scripture alone.” The Reformers did not mean that Christians have “no authority except the Bible.” They meant that Christians accept “no authority over the Bible.” Protestants were committed to the principle that no other authority stands over Scripture. Luther valued the writings of the church fathers and councils, but he saw that final spiritual authority lies in Scripture, not the Roman Catholic Church.

In 1521, Luther was called before an imperial court headed by Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor. The “Diet of Worms” summoned Luther to recant his writings and confess mistakes in what he had written.  In response, Luther restated his commitment to the authority of Scripture. “I am bound by the Scriptures, and my conscience is captive to the Word of God.”[4]

► In his response to Luther, the imperial secretary at the Diet of Worms argued, “If it were granted that whoever contradicts the councils and the common understanding of the church must be (answered) by Scripture, we will have nothing in Christianity that is certain.” Catholic officials insisted that individual Bible reading would lead to chaos. If every Christian can interpret Scripture, how do we avoid confusion?[5]

What is the Church?

The Roman Catholic Church answered, “The only true church is Rome.” The pope insisted that salvation was possible only through the Roman church.

When Luther visited Rome in 1510 and saw the sinful lifestyles of the bishops and cardinals, he began to recognize the apostasy of the Roman Catholic Church. As he studied Scripture further, he came to understand that, through faith, the individual believer can approach God directly without priests and church rituals. In his writing titled The Babylonian Captivity of the Church, Luther argued that the Roman Church had deprived believers of access to God. The Reformers taught that “all believers are priests called to offer spiritual sacrifices to God.” The church is composed of all true believers.

This view of the church affected many aspects of Luther’s later teaching. He rejected the church’s view of the sacraments, recognizing only Baptism and the Lord’s Supper. He gave both the bread and the wine to laymen. Rather than the Mass as a reenactment of the sacrifice of Christ on the cross, the focus of Lutheran worship was the Word of God.

What is the Essence of Christian Living?

The Roman Catholic Church answered, “Monastic life is superior to the life of the laity.” It was only monks and priests who truly fulfilled the model of the Sermon on the Mount.

Luther responded that the Christian is called to serve God in any calling, sacred or secular. All useful callings are equal in God’s eyes. All Christians are called to live in full obedience to God.[7] Because of this conviction, Luther encouraged ministers to marry, and in 1525, he married a former nun, Katherine von Bora.

Luther preached that good works are the fruit, not the source, of spiritual life. “Good works do not make a man good, but a good man does good works.” For the Reformers, the Christian life was not about earning salvation through works, but about doing good works in joyful response to salvation.

Justification by faith is not the end of our Christian growth. Instead, the justified believer begins a process of discipleship that transforms all of life. Dietrich Bonhoeffer, one of the most famous Lutherans of the twentieth century, warned against “cheap grace” that teaches forgiveness without repentance. It is “grace without discipleship, grace without the cross.”

The ideal of Christian living is neither monastic withdrawal nor careless conformity to the world around us. Instead, Christians are called to live in obedience to God’s Word in every place and in every time.

The Effects of Luther’s Teaching

Luther’s goal was reformation within the Roman Catholic Church, not a new church. However in 1521, the church excommunicated Luther as a “heretic.” Soon the Reformation spread through Germany and to other parts of Europe. In a ten-week period in 1521, Luther translated the entire New Testament into German, making Scripture available in the language of the people. In the following years, he translated the liturgy into German. He abolished the office of bishop and appointed pastors. Finally, he abandoned the emphasis on the Mass as a reenactment of Jesus’ death and put the preaching and teaching of God’s Word at the center of the worship service.

Martin Luther was not infallible. His doctrine was not fully developed in some areas. However, Luther’s influence on the Christian church has been enormous. Through his writings, the Reformation spread across the continent and ultimately, around the globe.

[1] From Bruce L. Shelley, Church History in Plain Language, 3rd edition (USA: Thomas Nelson, 2008), 238.

[2] Romans 1:17

[3] For more on the doctrine of justification by grace through faith, see the Shepherds Global Classroom course, Romans.

[4] Quoted in Mark A. Noll, Turning Points, 3rd edition (MI: Baker Academic, 2012), 146.

[5] Remember that while Luther recognized Scripture as the final authority of all of life, he did not teach that all people had equal authority in interpreting Scripture. Luther had great respect for the ancient creeds, and for the study of the Hebrew and Greek texts. The careful study of Scripture was important to Luther and the other Reformers.

[6]“From depths of woe I cry to thee,
Lord, hear me, I implore thee.
Bend down thy gracious ear to me,
My prayer let come before thee.
If thou rememberest each misdeed,
If each should have its rightful meed,
Who may abide thy presence?

“Thy love and grace alone avail
To blot out my transgression;
The best and holiest deeds must fail
To break sin's dread oppression.
Before thee none can boasting stand,
But all must fear thy strict demand
And live alone by mercy.

“Therefore my hope is in the Lord
And not in mine own merit;
It rests upon his faithful Word
To them of contrite spirit
That he is merciful and just;
This is my comfort and my trust.
His help I wait with patience.

“Though great our sins and sore our woes,
His grace much more aboundeth;
His helping love no limit knows,
Our utmost need it soundeth.
Our shepherd good and true is he,
Who will at last his Israel free
From all their sin and sorrow”

- Martin Luther’s hymn on Psalm 130

Luther saw Psalm 130 as an Old Testament summary of the gospel. It shows our great sin (“If you, O Lord, should mark iniquities, O Lord, who could stand”) and God’s great grace (“For with the Lord there is steadfast love, and with him is plentiful redemption”).

Two hundred years later, John Wesley heard Psalm 130 sung in worship on the afternoon of his “Aldersgate experience.”

[7]“Many have taken the Christian faith to be a simple and easy matter… This is because they have not really experienced it.” - Martin Luther

As Protestants, we tend to assume that missions began only with the Reformation. However, we should not forget that during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the most active missions were still Roman Catholic.

Many critics of Roman Catholic missions argue that they did little more than aid colonial expansion. This was sometimes true. However, there were many Roman Catholic missionaries who truly loved God and sought to spread the gospel. True spirituality was more widespread among Roman Catholic missionaries and local priests than among the officials in Rome.

An example of a Catholic missionary who loved God and who loved people was Bartolomé de las Casas (1484-1566). At the age of 18, he gave himself to missions and the spread of the gospel. He came to the island of Hispaniola in 1502.

It was customary for Spanish settlers to take Indians as slaves. They claimed to do this in order to instruct the natives in the Christian faith, but las Casas saw the cruelty and injustice of this system. He became an advocate for the Indians and was able to convince the Spanish government to pass laws protecting the natives. He was given the title, “Protector of the Indians.”

His letters show that las Callas was inspired to this action by his Christian convictions. Like William Carey three centuries later, las Callas knew that to love God meant to love his neighbor. This love guided his view of social policy.

► How have your Christian convictions affected your view of your fellow man? Can you give specific examples of how your church shows its love for others through its actions in the community?

Ulrich Zwingli[1] (1484-1531) was a Swiss contemporary of Martin Luther. Zwingli was ordained at the age of twenty and pastored in Glarus for ten years. In 1518, he was called as pastor in Zurich. In Zurich, Zwingli led a reformation that paralleled Luther’s reforms.

Zwingli promoted a new translation of the Bible and replaced the mass with a service in which Scripture was central. On January 1, 1519, Zwingli began a four-year series of sermons through the New Testament. People accustomed to hearing a Latin liturgy now heard God’s Word expounded clearly. Bible exposition was important for the Reformers.

Zwingli differed from Luther in two important areas. The first regarded the Lord’s Supper. While Luther rejected transubstantiation[2], he believed that Christ was bodily present in the communion elements. Luther said that Christ is “in, with, and under” the bread and wine.[3] Zwingli rejected both Roman Catholic and Lutheran views of communion. He saw the Lord’s Supper as a memorial or symbol of Christ’s death.

The second difference was the application of Scripture. Although both leaders were faithful to the principle of Sola Scriptura, this principle leaves many questions open for debate.

For instance, Luther believed that anything not forbidden in Scripture was allowed in worship. Zwingli believed that anything not expressly commanded by Scripture was forbidden. This led to significant differences in worship. Luther allowed a wide range of worship practices including pipe organs, choirs, and new hymns. By contrast, Zwingli removed the organ from the church because he could not find a text commanding its use in Christian worship. For the same reason, Zwingli did not allow candles, statues, or instrumental music in Swiss churches.[4]

The inability of the Reformers to resolve these issues led to the rise of denominations within Protestantism. Instead of a “Protestant Church,” there would many “Protestant churches” with differing views on various doctrinal and practical issues.

[1] Zwingli’s name is sometimes spelled Huldrych Zwingli.

[2] Transubstantiation is the Roman Catholic doctrine that the bread and wine are changed into the actual body and blood of Christ. Laymen were not allowed to drink the wine; to spill the wine was believed to be spilling the actual blood of Jesus.

[3] This is called “consubstantiation.” This doctrine says that Christ is “with” the elements of the Lord’s Supper.

[4] Luther’s “normative principle” of worship says, “Whatever is not prohibited in Scripture is permitted in worship, as long as it is agreeable to the peace and unity of the Church.” Zwingli and Calvin followed the “regulative principle” of worship. This principle says, “Whatever is not commanded Scripture is prohibited in worship.”

John Calvin (1509-1564) was born a quarter century after Luther. He followed Luther’s Reformation principles and would have agreed with Luther on the answer to each of the four questions we saw at the beginning of this lesson.

John Calvin was a brilliant student at the University of Paris, where he came into contact with Reformation ideas. His support of Protestant principles brought him into conflict with officials, and Calvin fled to Switzerland. In Switzerland, Calvin published the Institutes of the Christian Religion, his most influential book. He continued to revise this work for nearly twenty-five years. He also wrote commentaries on most books of the Bible.

In 1536, Calvin settled in Geneva with the official title of “Professor of Sacred Scriptures. Geneva became a center for Protestants who traveled from all over Europe to learn Calvin’s theology firsthand. Zwingli had the greatest influence in the German speaking parts of Switzerland; Calvin’s influence was strongest in the French speaking areas of Switzerland. Presbyterian and Reformed Churches trace their heritage back to this French theologian.[1]

Calvin’s emphasis on the absolute sovereignty of God guided all areas of his teaching.[2] In relation to salvation, this meant that each individual is predestined by God to salvation or damnation. In relation to civil government, this meant that the church should attempt to establish the Kingdom of God on earth.

Luther and Calvin differed on the relationship between the church and the state. Luther saw the state as supreme, with German princes deciding the religion for each region. Calvin insisted that the civil government has no authority over the church, but that the church should guide civil authorities in secular matters.

Calvin attempted to structure Geneva as a Christian society. Although at one point his enemies drove him out of the city for three years, Calvin eventually regained leadership of the city and ruled until his death. He required a profession of faith by every citizen; he provided for education for all; and he insisted on excommunication for those who did not live in obedience to Scripture.

While Luther considered the state to be supreme, Calvin denied absolute power to earthly rulers. In the next generation, Calvinists would oppose Europe’s absolute monarchs. In France, Calvinist Huguenots opposed the Catholic monarchy. In the Netherlands, Calvinist ministers rallied the nation to overthrow Catholic Spanish rule. And in Scotland, John Knox successfully prevented “Bloody Mary” from returning the nation to Catholicism.

[1] Confusion alert! “Reformed Churches” or “Reformed Theology” refers specifically to the churches that followed John Calvin’s theology. “Reformation” is a broader term. So, Wesleyans are part of the Reformation tradition, but are not followers of “Reformed Theology.” It would have been simpler if Calvin’s successors had chosen a different term!

[2]“If Luther’s ultimate text was ‘The just shall live by faith,’
Calvin’s ultimate text was, ‘Thy will be done, on earth as it is in heaven.’”
- Bruce Shelley, Church History in Plain Language

Jacobus Arminius  (1560-1609) was a Dutch theologian who challenged some of the teachings of the “Belgic Confession,” which was a summary of Reformed Calvinist doctrine. Calvin taught that God created some men for salvation and some for damnation. This doctrine of “double predestination” proposed that God decreed, even before the Fall, all who would be saved and all who would be damned.[1]

[5]

Arminius studied under Theodore Beza, Calvin’s successor as the leader of the church in Geneva. However, while serving as a pastor in Amsterdam, Arminius began to question some important aspects of Calvinist theology.

As he studied Romans 7, Arminius became convinced that the believer can live free of willful sin through the power of the Holy Spirit. With the early church fathers, Arminius saw that Romans 7 gives a picture of an unregenerate man. This unbeliever has been convicted by the Holy Spirit and has “the desire to do what is right, but not the ability to carry it out.”[2] He tries to fulfill the law in his own power. Transformation occurs in Romans 8:1; “There is therefore now no condemnation for those who are in Christ Jesus. For the law of the Spirit of life has set you free in Christ Jesus from the law of sin and death.”

Then, as he studied Romans 9, Arminius began to question Calvin’s teaching of unconditional election. Arminius rejected the idea that an all-loving God would refuse grace to anyone, a necessary presupposition for the doctrine of double predestination. Arminius saw that grace was free and that grace was for all mankind. He concluded, therefore, that a measure of preventing (or prevenient) grace is given to all through the death of Christ. This prevenient grace makes it possible for any person to repent and believe the gospel.

Election, Arminius taught, is “an eternal and gracious decree of God in Christ, by which he determines to justify and adopt believers, and to endow them with eternal life….” Election is not an unconditional choice to save a few and condemn all others. Instead, election is God’s gracious choice to save “whosoever believes.”[3]

Many Calvinists accuse Arminius of semi-Pelagianism.[4] They claim that Arminius’ teaching denies the power of original sin and gives man the power to gain salvation. However, Arminius insisted that he taught only those things that could be proved from Scripture and that built up believers. Arminius did not deny original sin. Instead, he taught that God’s grace is sufficient to overcome the power of original sin – and is available to all people.

After Arminius’ death, his followers (known as the Dutch Remonstrants) issued a document summarizing their disagreements with Calvinism. Their Five Articles was answered by the Calvinist Synod of Dort. Calvinist doctrine was also represented in the English Westminster Confession of Faith.  These two systems are compared in two charts below. The first chart lists the original Five Articles of the Remonstrants with responses from the Synod of Dort and Westminster Confession of Faith. The second chart uses modern terminology to compare the two systems more directly.

► It is difficult for us to see the strengths in the views of our theological opponents. However, we can often gain new insights from thinking about doctrine from a different perspective. This exercise may help you better understand the doctrine of other denominations. Regardless of your denominational background, share two strengths and two dangers of Calvinist theology.  Next, identify two strengths and two dangers of Arminian theology.

[1] If you like big words, here is one for you. Supralapsarianism is the doctrine that God decreed the damnation of some men, prior to the Fall.

[2] Romans 7:18

[3] John 3:16

[4] Pelagius was a fifth century monk who opposed Augustine. Pelagius denied that man was completely corrupted by the fall. As a result, he said that man has the power in himself to do good and gain salvation. The Council of Ephesus in 431 condemned Pelagius as a heretic.

[5]Image: "British Library digitised image from page 512 of 'Algemeene geschiedenis der Vaderlands...'", retrieved from the British Library https://www.flickr.com/photos/britishlibrary/11018029026, "No known copyright restrictions."

Every evangelical owes a great debt of gratitude to the magisterial Reformers. From Martin Luther, we regained an appreciation for the biblical doctrine of justification by grace through faith. From Ulrich Zwingli, evangelicals have a respect for the careful exposition of Scripture. From John Calvin, we are reminded of the importance of the doctrine of the sovereignty of God. God used the Reformers to revive his church after centuries of decline.

However, the Reformers also remind us that God used flawed servants. Martin Luther restored an emphasis on justification by grace through faith, but he failed to fully understand the transforming power of grace to make a believer holy. Zwingli’s use of military force to try to install Protestantism in Catholic cantons was based on a misunderstanding of how God’s Kingdom is spread. While John Calvin should be rightly respected for his high view of God’s majesty and power, he often fell short in expounding God’s love for all humankind.

The lesson is this: we must always return to God’s Word as our final authority. No human teacher is infallible. While we should learn from tradition and from great teachers of the past, our ultimate authority is the Bible. This is why the Reformers emphasized the principle of sola Scriptura. It is Scripture that must be our ultimate authority for doctrine and practice.

Calvin, John (1509-1564). French reformer and theologian who settled in Geneva and led the Calvinistic wing of the Reformation. Author of the Institutes of the Christian Religion.

Erasmus of Rotterdam (c. 1469-1536). Influential Roman Catholic humanist and church critic who produced the first Greek New Testament.

Luther, Martin (1483-1546). German monk who sparked the Protestant Reformation with his Ninety-Five Theses. He translated the New Testament into German.

Zwingli, Ulrich (1484-1531). Swiss Protestant reformer.

(1) Take a test on this lesson. The test will include dates from the “Key Events in Church History” timeline (1517-1618).

(2) Biographical Application: Give two specific lessons we can learn from the life of each of the following church leaders. You can share this in your next class session.

• Martin Luther
• Ulrich Zwingli
• Jacobus Arminius

Within thirty days of completing the final lesson, you will submit a 6-8 page paper on the spread of Christianity in your nation or among your people group. This paper should include three parts:

1. The story of the arrival of the gospel to your people
2. An evaluation of the strength of the church today
3. A vision for the growth of the church in the next twenty years

If the class leader approves, you may work together with your classmates in preparing this paper.

(1) The Reformation was sparked by Luther’s Ninety-Five Theses in ______ (date).

(2) List the four questions that were central to the Reformation.

(3) The imperial court where Luther testified was called the ____________________.

(4) List the five Reformation “solas.” Give a definition of each.

(5) How did Luther and Zwingli differ regarding worship practices in the church?

(6) The Dutch ___________________ (what group) taught that the atonement is universal in its scope. The __________________ (what group) taught that God has chosen from eternity those who will be saved.