Lesson 1: Introduction to the New Testament

By the end of this lesson, the student should:

(1) Know the geography of Palestine and its importance to the New Testament.

(2) Understand the historical setting of the New Testament.

(3) Recognize Roman, Greek, and Jewish influences on the New Testament.

(4) Understand some ancient customs of the New Testament world.

(5) Be able to explain the reasons we can trust the authority of the New Testament.

(6) Appreciate how God prepared the world for the coming of Christ and the spread of the gospel.

► Read Matthew 1:1-7, Luke 1:1-5, Luke 2:1-5.

► Memorize Galatians 4:4-5.

► Is the historical accuracy of the Bible important to the Christian faith? Why?

The Christian faith is based on the acts of God in human history and in the life of Jesus who became flesh and dwelt among us (John 1:14). Therefore, knowing about the historical setting of Christianity helps us understand the New Testament. The excerpts from Matthew and Luke at the beginning of this lesson show the Gospel writers’ emphasis on the historical setting of Jesus’ life.

Christianity is much different from many world religions. Students of Eastern religions have shown that Buddhism is essentially the same without the Buddha; Hinduism is largely the same without many of its gods. However, Christianity is empty without the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus of Nazareth. “And if Christ has not been raised, then our preaching is in vain and your faith is in vain” (1 Corinthians 15:14).

Christianity is a historical faith; the Bible is a historical book. It does not record legends and myths; it is a record of historical events. Some scholars claim that the Bible is a collection of great ethical teachings illustrated by pre-scientific myths. However, the Bible does not give us this option; scripture clearly professes to be historical truth.

The New Testament is based on events that occurred in a particular time, place, and culture. The time is the first century A.D.; the place is Palestine and the Roman world; the culture is Jewish, Greek, and Roman. Because of the importance of this historical and geographical setting, we will begin our study with a description of the world of Jesus and the early church.

► Refer to the map of Israel to better understand this part of the lesson. (If you are using the SGC mobile app to view this course, the map is found in the appendix.)

The land of Palestine is central to Israel’s history and the earthly ministry of Jesus. Even the title “Jesus of Nazareth” suggests the importance of a particular place in his life.

Palestine is approximately 75 kilometers wide and 235 kilometers long.[1] Though small, this area was strategically located for the events of ancient history. Its location between Egypt to the southwest, Syria to the north, Assyria to the northeast, and Babylon to the east made it a crossroads for trade and a place of strategic military importance.

West-East Land Features

Moving from west to east (from the Mediterranean Sea to the Jordan River), a person traveling through Palestine would encounter four geographic regions. From the Coastal Plain along the Mediterranean Sea, the land rises through the Central Highlands to a high point of approximately 800 meters[2] above sea level. Jerusalem was the high point of Israel, both spiritually and geographically.

Further east is the Judean Wilderness. A desolate area of mountains and rugged terrain, this region was dangerous for travelers and a difficult place to live.

East of this mountainous area, the Jordan Valley drops to 415 meters[3] below sea level, the lowest point of land on earth. The Jordan River winds 100 kilometers[4] from the mountains north of the Sea of Galilee to the Dead Sea in the south.

For much of his ministry, the Jordan River was the easternmost border of Jesus’ travels. However, at times he crossed the Sea of Galilee to travel in the area east of the Jordan River. This region included the Decapolis (“Ten Cities” founded during the period of Greek domination) and Perea. To the surprise of his followers, Jesus was willing to serve Gentiles in this region. This ministry helped prepare his disciples for his later commission to preach “…in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the earth” (Acts 1:8).

North-South Land Features

Moving from north to south, a traveler would journey from Galilee through Samaria to Judea, the religious and political center of Palestine. Galilee was a commercial region surrounding the Sea of Galilee, a freshwater lake. Nazareth was one of many small villages in this beautiful area. Galilee enjoyed an abundance of fish from the Sea of Galilee, as well as fruits and vegetables produced year-round on the Plain of Gennesaret, a mild area on the northwest edge of the Sea of Galilee.

The region of Samaria separated the Jews of the north from the Jerusalem Temple. Samaritans were descendants of foreigners and Jews who had intermarried after the Assyrian invasion in 722 B.C. Samaritans followed the Old Testament Law, practiced circumcision, celebrated the festivals, and looked for a coming Messiah. However, the Samaritans had their own place of worship on Mount Gerizim and were considered unclean by the Jews. Most Jews traveling from Galilee to Judea purposefully avoided Samaria. They crossed the Jordan River and traveled along its eastern shore before crossing back into Judea. Jesus, however, traveled through Samaria to minister to the woman at the well. This Samaritan woman heard Jesus’ first direct claim of being the Messiah (John 4:25-26).

Judea and its central city, Jerusalem, were located in the south. Visible for miles, Mount Zion (another term for Jerusalem) was the religious center of the Jewish faith. Each year at Passover, Jewish families visited the Temple. Jesus’ family made this journey when he was a child, and it was there, in his Father’s house, that Jesus was found sitting among the teachers (Luke 2:41-49).

Beginning with the fall of Jerusalem to Babylon in 586 B.C., the history of Palestine is a story of turmoil. Judah never regained her earlier glory.

The Babylonian Empire controlled Palestine until Babylon fell to the Persian emperor, Cyrus, in 539 B.C. Cyrus then allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem. During the next century, the city was rebuilt under the leadership of Ezra, Zerubbabel, and Nehemiah. However, Jerusalem was still under Persian control. Centuries later, the Jews in Jesus’ day still spoke Aramaic, the language of the Persian Empire.

In 334 B.C., Alexander the Great defeated Persia. Palestine became part of the Greek empire. After Alexander died in 323 B.C., his empire was divided among four generals. Palestine became a battleground between two of these generals and their followers: the Ptolemies and the Seleucids. This was one of the darkest periods of Jewish history. During this time, Antiochus Epiphanes (a Greek Seleucid ruler) desecrated the Temple when he built an altar to the Greek god Zeus in the Temple.

The tyranny of Antiochus Epiphanes inspired a revolt led by the Maccabees, a Jewish family. The Maccabee family retook control of Judea and established the Hasmonean dynasty. From 166-63 B.C., Palestine was governed by the Maccabean family. Unfortunately, this was a period of national instability due to family rivalries and religious apostasy. By 67 B.C., the family had fallen into civil war.

Rome quickly took advantage of the division between the Jewish leaders and established control over Palestine. In 63 B.C., the Roman General Pompey conquered Jerusalem. Pompey appointed a descendant of the Maccabees, Hyrcanus II, as high priest and made him the de facto ruler of Judea. (A de facto ruler is someone who holds power in a country, even though another person may have the title of ruler. Pompey held the title of ruler, but Hyrcanus II held the political power.) At the time of Christ, Palestine was governed by Rome.

In 37 B.C., Herod the Great was appointed king of Judea by the Roman Senate. Herod was an Idumaean, a descendant of the Edomites. The Maccabees had forcibly added Edom to their kingdom, but many Jews did not consider Herod a legitimate ruler. Edomites are descendants of Esau, while Jews are descendants of Jacob. For centuries, Edom had been the enemy of Israel: Edom refused to allow Israel to pass through their land on the way to Canaan during the Exodus (Numbers 20:14-21). Edom also supported Babylon in the destruction of Jerusalem (Obadiah 1). As an Edomite, Herod the Great was viewed with distrust by the Jewish people.

By 30 B.C., Herod had defeated his rivals and was the sole ruler of Judea under Rome’s authority. Herod was a complicated person. His character shows both positive and negative qualities. On the positive side, Herod showed great respect for the Jewish people. He rebuilt the Temple and followed the Jewish dietary laws. However, on the negative side, Herod was very jealous of any threat to his power. He killed several of his own sons when they reached adulthood because he feared they might try to become king in his place. Later, he tried to kill Jesus when the Magi asked, “Where is he who has been born king of the Jews?” (Matthew 2:2).

After the death of Herod the Great in 4 B.C., Rome divided his kingdom among his three sons. These rulers directly impacted New Testament history and the ministry of Jesus.

Herod Archelaus was given control of Judea. Because of Archelaus’ reputation for brutality, Joseph and Mary returned to Nazareth rather than Bethlehem (Matthew 2:19-23).[1] The cruelty of Archelaus caused a Jewish delegation to appeal to Rome for relief. Archelaus was banished, and Judea was placed under the rule of a procurator (or governor) sent by Rome.

At the time of Jesus’ trial, Pontius Pilate was the Roman procurator, residing in Caesarea[2] and traveling to Jerusalem during important festivals.[3] Pilate had to enforce the demands of Rome without causing the Jews to revolt. To accomplish this, he allowed the Sanhedrin a great deal of freedom. This council, which included the leading Jewish rabbis, met to make religious, cultural, and judicial decisions for the nation. Caiaphas, the high priest, was afraid this freedom would be taken away if Jesus’ actions brought the anger of Rome (John 11:49-50).

Herod Philip was the most tolerant of Herod’s sons. He ruled the area northeast of Galilee. Jesus spent time in this region to avoid the danger of arrest by the Jewish religious leaders in Jerusalem. Herod Philip rebuilt the city of Panias and renamed it Caesarea Philippi. This is where Peter made his great confession: “You are the Christ, the Son of the living God” (Matthew 16:16).

Herod Antipas was the ruler of Galilee and Perea from 4 B.C. to A.D. 39. Antipas imprisoned and killed John the Baptist (Mark 6:17-29). Because Herod Antipas had authority over Galilee, Pilate tried to avoid responsibility for Jesus’ fate by sending him to Antipas for trial (Luke 23:6-12). However, Herod refused to make a judgment and returned Jesus to Pilate for sentencing.

The cultural setting of the New Testament is as important as the historical setting. God sent Jesus into a world that was influenced by three distinct cultures. Each of these cultures had an important impact on the world of the New Testament.

The Greek Setting of the New Testament

The influence of Alexander the Great lasted long after his death in 323 B.C. He wanted everyone in the empire to speak the same language. Because of this, Greek became the language of the New Testament. Most Jewish people spoke both Aramaic and Greek.

There are three ways the Greek language contributed to the early church:

1. A common language made it easier to share the gospel. The New Testament was written in Koine Greek, the common Greek spoken throughout the Mediterranean world in the first century. While Aramaic (the spoken language of Palestine) and Hebrew (the language of the Old Testament) were limited to the Jewish people, Greek was spoken throughout the Roman Empire. The apostles’ message was understood by both Jews and Gentiles wherever they preached.

2. It was a precise language, perfect for communicating theological concepts. It allowed Paul to write about the profound doctrines of justification and sanctification.

3. The Greek translation of the Old Testament (the Septuagint) was the scripture of the early church. This translation, from the third century B.C., allowed Greek-speaking Jews to read the Old Testament and made it easily available to Gentile converts.

The Roman Setting of the New Testament

The Gospels

Roman influence in Jesus’ life is seen at his birth. God used a census conducted by a pagan emperor to fulfill Micah’s prophecy that the Messiah would be born in Bethlehem (Micah 5:2, Luke 2:1-5). Just as the Persian ruler Cyrus became God’s instrument to return his people from exile, Caesar Augustus became God’s instrument to bring Joseph and Mary from Nazareth to Bethlehem.

There were two methods available for conducting a census. The Romans preferred to register each person in the city where they currently lived. However, the Jews preferred to maintain tribal records in each family’s ancestral village, so Rome allowed Judea to conduct the census in their traditional manner. This required Joseph and Mary to travel 100 kilometers[1] from their hometown of Nazareth.

Although Jesus said little about Rome and her politics, Roman officials such as Herod Antipas and Pontius Pilate interpreted his message of the kingdom of God as a threat to their power. The message of the kingdom of God was a challenge to the kingdoms of this world.

The Book of Acts

Acts shows how God used the Roman Empire to enable the spread of the gospel. The Latin term pax Romana (“Roman Peace”) refers to two centuries of brutally enforced peace within the Roman Empire. While Rome’s power was often used unjustly (as in the crucifixion of Jesus), Roman power also protected travelers from barbarians, unified the empire, and made the missionary journeys of the apostles possible. Rome built 85,000 kilometers[2] of roads, stretching from the Euphrates River in the east to Scotland in the west, and established sea routes across the Mediterranean. Paul’s missionary journeys were possible largely because of the roads and sea routes established by Rome.

Unlike traditional Jewish culture, which grew around small towns and rural areas, Rome was an empire of great cities. These cities were of great importance for the spread of the gospel. In each region, Paul evangelized the leading cities in order to reach the most people. Paul preached the gospel in the primary cities of the Roman Empire and planned to preach in Rome itself, the center of the first-century world (Romans 1:11-15).

Paul made full use of his rights as a Roman citizen to help spread the gospel. Examples of this include his claim of legal protection at Philippi (Acts 16:35-39) and his appeal for a hearing before Caesar (Acts 25:11) .

Paul’s Letters

The book of Philippians uses the concept of citizenship to remind readers that their true citizenship is in heaven (Philippians 3:20). Paul wrote his letter of appeal to Philemon knowing that Roman law provided for the execution of Onesimus, a runaway slave and Paul’s convert. In Romans, Galatians, and Ephesians, Paul uses Roman legal language to explain theological concepts such as justification and pardon.

Even Paul’s imagery of adoption was more familiar to Romans than to Jews (Galatians 4:5, Ephesians 1:5). Adoption was quite common in Roman society. Romans understood that adoption included the cancellation of old debts, the granting of inheritance rights to the new son, and the start of a new life. Paul used these Roman legal concepts to explain the change that occurs when a new believer is adopted into God’s family.

The Book of Revelation

Rome prided herself on her tolerance of various religious beliefs; however, all people were required to recognize the divinity of the emperor. Rome allowed Jewish or Christian teachings as long as the worshipper stated that “Caesar is lord.” However, the Christian message that “Jesus Christ is Lord” was unacceptable to the Roman government (Philippians 2:11).

The book of Revelation was written in the context of Roman persecution. John’s visions assured suffering believers that Rome (or any power that opposes God) would be defeated. God, not Caesar, is in control of human history.

The Jewish Setting of the New Testament

Messianic Expectations

Christ is the Greek equivalent of the Hebrew word for Messiah. The crowds following Jesus were looking for the Messiah. Paul announced, “This Jesus, whom I proclaim to you, is the Christ” (Acts 17:3). Their expectation of a coming Messiah opened people’s ears to Jesus’ preaching.

Synagogues

After the destruction of the Temple in 586 B.C., synagogues provided a place of worship for the Jewish people. Any community with at least 10 men had a synagogue. A synagogue was used as a place of worship, a school, a religious and civil court, and a center for social activities. Jesus preached his first recorded sermon in a synagogue (Luke 4:16-30), healed in the synagogue (Mark 3:1-5), and taught in the synagogue (John 18:20).

Even after Cyrus allowed the Jews to return to their homeland, many Jewish people remained in Babylon; Alexandria, Egypt; and other cities to which they had fled after the fall of Jerusalem. This dispersion became important for the spread of the gospel. In almost every city the apostles preached, they found a synagogue for the local Jewish people.

When Paul visited a new city, he began by preaching in the synagogue to Jewish worshippers and devout God-fearers (Gentiles who were seeking truth).[3] These Gentiles were open to the message of the gospel.

Jewish Religious Groups

The Pharisees (“separated ones”) were the best-known religious people of Jesus’ day. Although few in number (approximately 6,000 men), they were popular with the common people. They were respected for their careful obedience to the Law of Moses. Like Christians, the Pharisees believed in resurrection and angels and had respect for the Old Testament. However, they added many oral traditions to the Law of Moses. Though they anticipated a coming Messiah, most Pharisees rejected Jesus’ claim to be the Messiah.

The Sadducees held political power during Jesus’ day. By cooperating with Rome, the Sadducees gained control of the high priesthood and the Sanhedrin. The Sadducees accepted only the Torah as authoritative (Torah, meaning “the Law,” is a Hebrew term that refers to the five books of Moses). They rejected the prophetic books and oral tradition. As a result, they rejected belief in angels, spirits, and resurrection (Acts 23:8). Because their power came from their position in the Temple, the Sadducees disappeared after the destruction of the Temple in A.D. 70.

Understanding the customs of the New Testament world can help us better understand the message of the New Testament. Two examples demonstrate the value of studying New Testament customs.

Example 1

Most Jewish families lived in one-room homes. Animals were often housed in an outer room of the house which had mangers for feeding them. When Mary and Joseph came to Bethlehem, they were probably allowed to stay in this outer room, since the main guestroom (inn) was filled during the census. They were shown the best hospitality available during this busy time.

Example 2

Judean shepherds often allowed several flocks of sheep to pasture together. When it was time to separate the sheep, each shepherd would call his own sheep. The sheep knew their shepherd’s voice. Jesus said that his “…sheep follow him, for they know his voice. A stranger they will not follow, but they will flee from him, for they do not know the voice of strangers” (John 10:4-5).

For more information on the customs of the New Testament world, you can read Manners and Customs of the Bible, available online.[1]

Can we trust the authority of the New Testament? Many false teachings come from those who deny the integrity of the Bible or who claim to find new sources of revelation outside the Bible. Two issues are important for understanding the authority of the New Testament:

1. Canon: Which books are the inspired Word of God?

2. Textual integrity: Is our text faithful to the original text?

Canon: Which Books Are the Inspired Word of God?

The canon of scripture is an important issue for believers. It answers the question, “Which books are God’s Word for God’s people?” How do we know that the New Testament books are truly God’s Word?

The term canon comes from a Greek term meaning “rule” or “standard.” The New Testament canon consists of those books that measure up to the standard used by the early church to determine which writings were truly God’s Word. The formation of the canon was inspired by two issues:

1. False doctrine. In the early church, as today, false teachers denied parts of biblical revelation. For example, in the second century, Marcion taught that the God of the Old Testament was evil. To support his teachings, Marcion rejected all books of the Bible except for Paul’s writings and parts of Luke. The acceptance of a universal canon was important to provide a solid foundation for doctrine. Teachers could be sure that the doctrine they preached was based on God’s Word.

2. Persecution. During times of persecution, followers of Christ could be killed for possessing Christian scriptures. They had to know, “For which books am I willing to die?”

By the fourth century, the Christian church had agreed on a list of divinely inspired texts. They applied three tests to books which were claimed as scripture. To be considered part of the New Testament canon, a book had to meet three standards:

1. Author. The author was an apostle or was closely associated with one. In the case of the Gospel writers, Matthew and John were apostles; Mark traveled with Peter; Luke traveled with Paul.

2. Message. The message of the book must:

• Not conflict with the Old Testament.

• Be faithful to the message of Jesus.

• Be spiritually edifying.

3. Acceptance. The book had to be accepted as scripture by the entire church. The books of the New Testament were widely quoted by the early church fathers.

Modern skeptics argue that the canon was created by church authorities as a means of gaining power. Such critics fail to recognize that the canon was a universally agreed-upon standard; it was not the product of a handful of ambitious bishops. The New Testament canon was officially approved in A.D. 397 at the Council of Carthage. However, the books of the New Testament had already been listed by theologians 200 years before this council.

Theologian J. I. Packer writes, “The church no more gave us the New Testament canon than Sir Isaac Newton gave us the force of gravity.”[1] Newton did not invent gravity; he discovered what God had already created. In the same way, the church did not invent the canon; the church discovered the books which God had already inspired.

The Council of Carthage confirmed a canon that was already accepted throughout the household of faith. The canon includes those books that believers of all time have agreed are the divinely inspired Word of God.

Apocryphal books are books that have been claimed as sacred Christian writings, but which were not considered scripture by the early church. In the second century, writers such as Tertullian and Irenaeus wrote against heresies that were taught in false books. The Muratorian Canon, a second-century listing of genuine New Testament books, specified certain other books as being heretical or falsely attributed to apostles. The Epistle of Jude shows that even in the first century, it was necessary to contend for the faith that was once for all delivered to the saints (Jude 1:3). False teachers had already “…crept in unnoticed…” (Jude 1:4).

Some apocryphal books are good writings which may be valuable for portraying practices of the early church. Reputable apocryphal books include I Clement, the Epistle of Barnabas, the Didache, and the Shepherd of Hermas. These texts are orthodox in their teaching, but they did not meet the early church’s standards for inclusion in the canon.

Heretical apocryphal books include the Gospel of Thomas, a second-century Gnostic text falsely attributed to the apostle Thomas, the Epistle to the Laodiceans, and the Apocalypse of Peter. These texts were not accepted by the church because they contradicted established Christian truth. Rather than being rejected by the Council of Carthage, it is much more accurate to say that these books were never considered scripture by the church in general.

Apocryphal texts are not a valid source of truth for Christian believers. Our belief is founded on “…the faith that was once for all delivered to the saints” (Jude 1:3). That faith has not changed and will not change. Our faith rests on the firm foundation of God’s Word.

Textual Integrity: Is Our Text Faithful to the Original Text?

Skeptics often say that the New Testament text is unreliable. They argue that mistakes were introduced as the scriptures were copied. These critics insist that even if the original text was inspired, we have no way of knowing whether the Bible we have today is accurate.

Can we trust the textual integrity of our Bible? The answer to this question is “Yes!” It is true that the New Testament books were passed down in handwritten form, and it is true that mistakes can be made when copying a manuscript by hand. However, because this was the inspired Word of God, the copyists worked with great care. Scholars devoted their lives to copying the New Testament as accurately as possible.

The consistency we see in more than 5,000 manuscripts that contain all or part of the New Testament is abundant evidence that our text was copied carefully. There is no other ancient text with as much manuscript support as the New Testament.

Paul wrote in Galatians 4:4, “But when the fullness of time had come, God sent forth his Son, born of woman, born under the law.” The phrase “when the fullness of time had come” makes the reader think of a pregnant mother who is ready to deliver her child. At just the right moment, God sent his Son into a world that had been divinely prepared. The world was ready:

• Geographically. Palestine was a small land at the crossroads of ancient cultures. This provided a launching pad for the spread of the gospel around the world.

• Historically. The Roman Empire provided a ready environment for the spread of the gospel.

• Culturally. A mixture of the Greek language, the Roman political system, and Jewish religious traditions provided the setting for the birth of the Christian church.

God thoroughly prepared the world to receive the gospel in the first century. Today, he works in the same way to prepare people for the gospel.

As you finish this lesson, pray, “God, what are you doing to prepare my world for the ministry you have given to me?”

At the beginning of the next lesson, you will take a test based on this lesson. Study the test questions carefully in preparation.

(1) Moving from west to east, list the four geographic regions of Palestine.

(2) Why is it significant that Jesus traveled through Samaria to minister to the woman at the well?

(3) List three ways the Greek language contributed to the early church.

(4) To what does pax Romana refer?

(5) In what ways was a Jewish synagogue used?

(6) What beliefs did Pharisees and Christians have in common?

(7) What part of the Old Testament did the Sadducees accept as authoritative?

(8) What beliefs did the Sadducees reject?

(9) What two issues inspired the formation of the canon?

(10) List the three standards used in establishing the New Testament canon.

(11) What question do we ask when we consider the issue of textual integrity?

(12) Write Galatians 4:4-5 from memory.